Napoleon Bonaparte: Bloodthirsty Warmonger or Savior of France?
His empire stretched over 500,000 square miles (Jobin, 2023), with a sphere of influence engulfing nearly every major European power (McKay and Hill, 2019). Through political manipulation and military force, Napoleon climbed France’s political and military ranks to become France’s first emperor. Widely regarded as one of history’s most pre-eminent military leaders, Napoleon left such a profound mark on Europe that the period came to be known as the Napoleonic Era. But was he acting in France’s best interests, fighting to save his country, or was he hellbent on feeding his unquenchable thirst for military victory at any cost? Analyzing both Napoleon and his psyche, it becomes clear his burning passion for warfare ultimately shaped the course of history.
Born on the French island of Corsica which was later annexed by France, Napoleon struggled with identifying his nationality. He was mocked for his Corsican accent at a young age, leading many historians to believe he had an inferiority complex. Napoleon excelled early in school, discovering a passion for mathematics. This eventually led to a position as an artillery officer in the French army, where he specialized in trajectory angles (Bloom, n.d.). In preparatory school, his passion for history and mathematics set him on a military career path. Napoleon was inspired from a young age by early conquerors:
“[T]o read and re-read the campaigns of Alexander the Great, Hannibal, Julius Caesar… is the only way to become a great captain”
However, France’s closed society halted this ambition to follow in their footsteps. Positions of power were not traditionally awarded for merit or qualifications but for birthright and social connections, but thanks to the French Revolution, this system was disbanded. Because of these reforms, Napoleon quickly rose through the military ranks. Fighting on the side of the revolutionaries, Napoleon defeated royalist uprisings such as the Siege of Toulon in 1793, where royalists were aided by the British. He went on to defeat another royalist uprising in Paris in 1795, resulting in his promotion, allowing him to command the Army of the Interior (Oversimplified, 2020).
Throughout Napoleon's rise to power, he was motivated by his military conquests. Speeches and testimonies of his peers indicate he fought not for France, but instead to feed his pride. Napoleon's proclamation at Austerlitz on December 3rd, 1805, exemplifies this:
“you have decked your eagles with a glory shall never die… people will welcome you back with delight, and all you will have to say is I was at the Battle of Austerlitz, for them, to reply, there goes a brave man”
Napoleon takes great pride in his victory, expecting the people of France to describe both him and the soldiers in this war as “brave men.” When Napoleon describes the soldiers as decking their eagles with an undying glory, we are made aware that he believes war fuels pride. Napoleon needed to fuel his pride and bolster his self-esteem, and war fueled this obsession. Napoleon's private secretary, Bourrienne stated: “Bonaparte had two ruling passions, glory and war. He was never more gay [happy] than in the camp, and never more morose [depressed] than in the inactivity of peace” (Bourrienne, 1896, as cited in FullTextArchive, n.d.).
Essentially, Bourrienne claims that passion and glory consumed Napoleon. Interestingly, he notes Napoleon's elation in the camps of war compared to peacetime depression. Bourrienne’s description implies that Napoleon needed war to function in daily life. Napoleon's emotional dependence on war indicates his need for war outweighed desires for wealth or status he gained as a result of his conquest.
Napoleon’s military actions also reflected his obsession with war. The treaty of Tilsit created peace between France and Russia. Once Russia’s economy began to decline due to trade sanctions with England, relations between Russia and France gradually declined. Rather than choosing diplomacy, Napoleon invaded Russia. He declared to his army:
“She [Russia] offers us the alternative of dishonor or war. The choice does not admit hesitation. Let us march forward… Let us carry war into her territory”
Napoleon offered France two options: dishonor or war. He did not offer his army the option of peace through diplomacy. Avoiding war with Russia and easing tensions through diplomacy would have benefited France. Restoring peace with Russia would have allowed Napoleon to expand his sphere of influence and prevent France from stretching its army too thin, considering France was already embroiled in a war with Spain.
Invading Russia was a colossal strategic catastrophe. It is recorded that one of his captains, Jean-Roch Coignet stated:
“The cold was so intense that men died in silence, their bodies frozen solid. Some would slip and fall, never to rise again, their comrades too weak to offer assistance. The road was littered with the dead and the dying. A grim testament to the folly [absurdity] of our endeavor”
Of the 612,000 soldiers that entered Russia, 112,000 survived (Britannica, 2023). How could one of the greatest military leaders of all time make such a blunder? The answer to this question is that Napoleon’s love for war led to his defeat. Many times, during the campaign, Napoleon considered stopping. He wrote privately: “I have marched too far” (Napoleon I, 1812, as cited in UncouthReflections, 2014). After his army had shrunk to 156,000, he announced the end of his campaign–only to change his mind days later. A Lithuanian observer, as cited in UncouthReflections (2014) quotes him as “rejecting the truth.” Arguably, Napoleon knew that his chances were bleak–he lied to himself to continue the war when he knew he had “marched too far.” Napoleon’s obsession with war ultimately led to the collapse of his dominance in Europe. Many historians such as Andrew Roberts, Owen Connelly, and David Chandler believe that Napoleon's invasion of Russia was the beginning of the end for his dominance in Europe. After his defeat in the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, he was forced into exile to the island of Saint Helena, where he lived for five years until his death at the age of 51 on May 5, 1821.
Napoleon’s Retreat From Moscow, oil on canvas, by Adolph Northen, 1851
However, many argue that Napoleon did not deeply enjoy war itself, but rather enjoyed the results that war brought as a tool. In Andrew Roberts’ “Napoleon: A Life,” Roberts argues Napoleon viewed war as a political tool to secure France and establish his power, and that he used war strategically rather than having a passion for it.
“Napoleon once told General d’Hédouville in December 1799,
“If you would make war, wage it with energy and severity; it is the only means of making it shorter and consequently less deplorable for mankind”
Furthermore, Napoleon himself had times of great dissatisfaction with war, stating: “four months of marching about, months of fatigue and wretchedness, have proved to me that nothing is more hideous, more, miserable, than war” (Napoleon I, 1805, as cited in Georges, 2016).
Nevertheless, looking at both Napoleon's quote and Andrew Roberts' argument alone fails to acknowledge critical nuance. While Napoleon did at times detest war, it was due to external factors. Napoleon treasured the act of war but hated the side effects that came with it. Andrew Roberts fails to explain the hidden motives behind Napoleon’s words.
Essentially, Napoleon advocated that war should be used as a means to the end: when war occurs, suffering should be minimised. If war is dealt with swiftly, it could end. We do see the complexity of his situation when he addresses Général d’Hédouville, because stating that he loved war in front of his general would be self-sabotage: Hédouville would question if campaigns were only for Napoleon’s enjoyment. To protect his own interests, if he did in fact have a passion for war, Napoleon would have made a rationale for war, so that he could instill purpose in his generals and army. Therefore, after deeper analysis, Napoleon did not outright state his love for war–and instead described it as a tool–to protect his personal interests. Napoleon mentions “months of fatigue and wretchedness” rather than war itself. Napoleon hated the logistics of marching months on end, but this does not mean he hated war itself. In fact, Napoleon repeatedly sought out battles in his Italian (Mark, 2023) and Egyptian (PBS, n.d.) campaigns.
In summary, Napoleon Bonaparte was a military genius, relishing war and combat. His legacy is fabled, and his downfall dramatic. Starting from humble beginnings as a minor nobility, he came to power through military dominance, conquering the majority of Europe at his peak, only to result in his eventual downfall after his invasion of Russia, and finally his exile on the island of Saint Helena. From his words in speech and literature, to his invasion in Russia, Napoleon cherished war. The story of Napoleon is a prime example of how an ordinary person prioritising personal interests can ruin the lives of others around them. His wars resulted in the deaths of millions of soldiers and civilians in Europe. His story highlights how leaders should put the interests of their people first and be aware of how their interests can conflict with the people they lead. When Napoleon is studied, the cost of ambition and a burning passion is revealed. Perhaps every great conqueror is cursed to watch the empire they built crumble.
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